STONEHENGE
Is a prehistoric monument located in the English county of Wiltshire, is composed of earthwork surrounding a circular setting of large standing stones and sits at the centre of the densest complex of Neolithic and Bronze Age. One recent theory has suggested that the first stones were not erected until 2400-2200 BC.
New archaeological evidence found by the Stonehenge Riverside Project indicates that Stonehenge served as a burial ground from its earliest beginnings.

HISTORY:

· Stonehenge 1 (ca. 3100 BC)
The first monument consisted of a circular bank and ditch enclosure made of Late Cretaceous measuring around 110 metres in diameter with a large entrance to the north east and a smaller one to the south

· Stonehenge 2 (ca. 3000 BC)
Number of postholes on this period was built within the enclosure during the early 3rd millennium BC. Standing timbers were placed at the northeast entrance and a parallel alignment of posts ran inwards from the southern entrance. The postholes are smaller and the bank was purposely reduced in height and the ditch continued to silt up.

· Stonehenge 3 I (ca. 2600 BC)
Archaeological excavation has indicated that around 2600 BC, timber was abandoned in favour of stone, and two concentric arrays of holes were dug in the centre of the site. The holes held up to 80 standing stones. The bluestones (some of which are made of dolerite, an igneous rock), were thought for much of the 20th century to have been transported by humans from the Preseli Hills, 250 kilometres (160 mi) away in modern day Pembrokeshire in Wales. A newer theory is that they were brought from glacial deposits much nearer the site, which had been carried down from the northern side of the Preselis to southern England by the Irish Sea Glacier.Other standing stones may well have been small sarsens, used later as lintels. The stones, which weighed about four tons, consisted mostly of spotted Ordovician dolerite but included examples of rhyolite, tuff and volcanic and calcareous ash; in total around 20 different rock types are represented. Each monolith measures around 2 metres in height, between 1 m and 1.5 m wide and around 0.8 metres (2.6 ft) thick. What was to become known as the Altar Stone (1), is almost certainly derived from either Carmarthenshire or the Brecon Beacons and may have stood as a single large monolith.

· Stonehenge 3 II (2600 BC to 2400 BC)
The next major phase of activity saw 30 enormous Oligocene-Miocene sarsen stones brought to the site. They may have come from a quarry around 40 kilometres north of Stonehenge, on the Marlborough Downs, or they may have been collected from a "litter" of sarsens on the chalk downs, closer to hand. The stones were dressed and fashioned with mortise and tenon joints before 30 were erected as a 33 metres diameter circle of standing stones, with a ring of 30 lintel stones resting on top. The lintels were fitted to one another using another woodworking method, the tongue and groove joint. Each standing stone was around 4.1 metres high, 2.1 metres wide and eighed around 25 tons. Each had clearly been worked with the final effect in mind; the orthostats widen slightly towards the top in order that their perspective remains constant as they rise up from the ground while the lintel stones curve slightly to continue the circular appearance of the earlier monument. The sides of the stones that face inwards are smoother and more finely worked than the sides that face outwards. The average thickness of these stones is 1.1 metres and the average distance between them is 1 metre . A total of 74 stones would have been needed to complete the circle and unless some of the sarsens were removed from the site, it would seem that the ring was left incomplete.


·Stonehenge 3 III
Later in the Bronze Age, the bluestones appear to have been re-erected for the first time, although the exact details of this period are still unclear. They were placed within the outer sarsen circle and at this time may have been trimmed in some way. A few have timber working-style cuts in them like the sarsens themselves, suggesting they may have been linked with lintels and part of a larger structure during this phase.


·Stonehenge 3 IV (2280 BC to 1930 BC)
This place was in a circle between the two settings of sarsens and in an oval in the very centre. Some archaeologists argue that some of the bluestones in this period were part of a second group brought from Wales. All the stones were well-spaced uprights without any of the linking lintels inferred in Stonehenge 3 III. The Altar Stone may have been moved within the oval and stood vertically.

·Stonehenge 3 V (2280 BC to 1930 BC)
Soon afterwards, the north eastern section of the Phase 3 IV Bluestone circle was removed; creating a horseshoe-shaped setting termed the Bluestone Horseshoe. This mirrored the shape of the central sarsen Trilithons and dates from 2270 to 1930 BC. This phase is contemporary with the famous Seahenge

site in Norfolk.

HADRIAN’S WALL

Hadrian's Wall (Latin: perhaps Vallum Aelium) is a stone and turf fortification built by the Roman Empire across the width of what is now northern England. Begun in AD 122, during the rule of emperor Hadrian, it was the middle of three such fortifications built across Great Britain, the first being from the River Clyde to the River Forth under Agricola and the last the Antonine Wall. All were built to prevent raids on Roman Britain by the Pictish tribes (ancient inhabitants of Scotland) to the north, to improve economic stability and provide peaceful conditions in Britain, and to mark physically the frontier of the Empire. Hadrian's Wall is the best known of the three because its physical presence remains most evident today.

It use as a military fortification, it is thought that the gates through the wall would also have served as customs posts to allow trade taxation.

A significant portion of the wall still exists. It is the most popular tourist attraction in Northern England, where it is often known simply as the Roman Wall.

WILLIAM WALLACE

William Wallace (1270 - 23 August 1305) was a Scottish knight who led the resistance against the English occupation of Scotland. It is believed that he was born in Paisley (Scotland). It was declared outlaw after killing an Englishman in a fight. From then began its actions against the British. A little later, he burned a British garrison and directed an attack against a real officer. Rather than accept the treaty of submission to England, had few attacking English strongholds in the north of the River Forth. On 11 September 1297 he defeated the British at the Battle of Stirling Bridge. It is said that when he had finished the battle killed the English commander, was escorxar and it was a belt, and that he li'n leave skin, but was able to make a case for the sword. He was elected to the post of regent, but in 1298 an army led by King Edward I of England invaded Scotland. On 22 July of that year, Wallace's troops were defeated at the Battle of Falkirk, and Sir William had to hide. One time after he was captured near Glasgow and, after being tried for treason, was executed on 23 August 1305.

WORLD WAR II

World War II, or the Second World War was a global military conflict

which involved a majority of the wold's nations, including all of the great powers, organized into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. The war involved the mobilization of over 100 million military personnel, making it the most widespread war in history. In a state of "total war", the major participants placed their complete economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities at the service of the war effort, erasing the distinction between civilian and military resources. Over seventy millon people, the majority of whom were civilians, were killed, making it the deadliest conflict in human history.
The start of the war is generally held to be in September 1st 1939 with the German invaton of Poland and subsequent declaratins of war on Germany by most of the countries in the British Commonwealth and France.Many belligerents were at war before or after this date, during a period which spanned from 1937 to 1941, as a result of other events. Amongst these main events are the Marco Polo Bridge Incident (fought between Nationalist China and Japan), the start of Operation Barbarossa (the German invasion of the Soviet Union), and the attacks on Pearl Harbor and British and Dutch colonies in South East Asia.
After the war ended in 1945, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as the world's superpowers. This set the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 45 years. The United Nations was formed in the hope of preventing another such conflict. The acceptance of the right to self-determination accelerated decolonization movements in Asia and Africa, while Western Europe itself began moving toward integration.

THE TECNOLOGY

Information technologies and communication technologies (ICTs) are a set of services, networks, software and devices aimed at improving the quality of life within an environment and an integrated information system interconnected and complementary. Information technology and communication are just a concept in two different studies as the main premise of the social sciences where such technologies affect the way of life of societies. His extensive use and abuse to denote modernity has led to completely erroneous views of the origin of the term. Computer science are responsible for study, development, deployment, storage and distribution of information through the use of hardware and software resources of computer systems. Most of the above technologies is not responsible as such. As a sociological concept and not refer to computer skills necessary to refer to the use of multiple media to store, process and disseminate all information, data transmission, etc. with different purposes (educational, organizational and business management, decision making, etc.)…
So not only is the object of those intangible objects for social science. For example, democracy, and new information technologies and communication (NTIC) are two concepts that travel in one direction, while democracy is the spirit of the MCT are methods, resources, freedoms to offer transparency to the government.

COMMONWEALTH COLONIES

The Commonwealth of Nations, usually known as the Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organization of fifty-three independent member states. Most of them were formerly parts of the British Empire. They co-operate within a framework of common values and goals, as outlined in the Singapore Declaration. These include the promotion of democracy, human rights, good governance, the rule of law, individual liberty, egalitarianism, free trade, multilateralism, and world peace.
The Commonwealth is not a political union, but an intergovernmental organization through which countries with diverse social, political, and economic backgrounds are regarded as equal in status. Its activities are carried out through the permanent Commonwealth Secretariat, headed by the Secretary-General; biennial Meetings between Commonwealth Heads of Government; and the Commonwealth Foundation, which facilitates activities of non-governmental organizations in the so-called 'Commonwealth Family'. The symbol of this free association is the Head of the Commonwealth, which is a ceremonial position currently held by Queen Elizabeth II.
Elizabeth II is also the monarch, separately, of sixteen members of the Commonwealth, informally called the Commonwealth realms. As each realm is an independent kingdom, Elizabeth II, as monarch, holds a distinct title for each, though, by a Prime Ministers' Conference in 1952, all include the style Head of the Commonwealth at the end; for example: Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, Queen of Australia and of Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth. Beyond the realms, the majority of the members of the Commonwealth have separate heads of state: thirty-two members are republics, and five members have distinct monarchs: the Sultan of Brunei; the King of Lesotho; the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (or King) of Malaysia; the King of Swaziland; and the King of Tonga.

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

The era known as the Industrial Revolution was a period in which fundamental changes occurred in agriculture, textile and metal manufacture, transportation, economic policies and the social structure in England. This period is appropriately labeled “revolution,” for it thoroughly destroyed the old manner of doing things; yet the term is simultaneously inappropriate, for it connotes abrupt change. The changes that occurred during this period (1760-1850), in fact, occurred gradually. The year 1760 is generally accepted as the “eve” of the Industrial Revolution. In reality, this eve began more than two centuries before this date. The late 18th century and the early l9th century brought to fruition the ideas and discoveries of those who had long passed on, such as, Galileo, Bacon, Descartes and others.
Advances in agricultural techniques and practices resulted in an increased supply of food and raw materials, changes in industrial organization and new technology resulted in increased production, efficiency and profits, and the increase in commerce, foreign and domestic, were all conditions which promoted the advent of the Industrial Revolution. Many of these conditions were so closely interrelated that increased activity in one spurred an increase in activity in another. Further, this interdependence of conditions creates a problem when one attempts to delineate them for the purpose of analysis in the classroom. Therefore, it is imperative that the reader be acutely aware of this when reading the following material.
The narrative portion of this unit is intended for the teacher’s use as a guide to teaching about this subject. It does not purport to include all that is needed to teach about the Industrial Revolution. It does provide a basis for teaching about the subject, leaving room for the teacher to maneuver as his/her style of teaching permits. One manner of capitalizing on any shortcomings in this material is to design individual or small group student activities which will enhance their study skills (reference materials, library use, research reports, etc.), while at the same time locating specific information. Also included are suggestions for utilizing this material in class. In the final analysis it is the teacher who will determine the manner in which this material is used, so it is his/her’s to modify as deemed necessary.

OLIVER TWIST (1837-1839)

The publication of the works of Charles Dickens was a scandal because it was a work of moral and realistic cut off the still idealistic and romantic.
Each chapter describes and denounces the evils of sincerity English society, the dangers of London, injustices, abuses suffered by children ... Despises the truth of the street while invents false rumors.
The plot is summarized in the birth of a child in a provincial town, the death of his mother after the birth ... Little Oliver escapes to London to improve his condition, but worse when it falls into the clutches of a band thieves and robbers led by a Jew named Fagin. Oliver enters the world of crime. The innocent Oliver just being recognized as a known member of the family.First, Oliver. Our protagonist is a victim and to the world as an indigent, his surname being pulled over by a letter of the alphabet for children born in the squalid town of Mud fog. In his first care is hardly news and is more abundant during your stay in an orphanage until the age of nine, where he soon emerged as a principled man of character and morality, claiming, for example, over lunch in the dining common.

Edgar Allan Poe (Boston, January 19, 1809 - Baltimore, October 7, 1849) was a writer, poet, critic and journalist romantic U.S., widely recognized as one of the masters of the universal story short, which was one of the early practitioners in the country. It was renovated in the Gothic novel, remembered especially for his tales of terror. Considered the inventor of the detective story, also contributed with several works to the emerging genre of science fiction. On the other hand, was the first writer who attempted to write his modus vivendi, which had disastrous consequences for him.

Charles Robert Darwin (February 12, 1809 - April 19, 1882) was an English naturalist who postulated that all species of living things have evolved over time from a common ancestor through a process called natural selection. The evolution was accepted as fact by the scientific community and much of the public life of Darwin, while his theory of evolution by natural selection was not considered the primary explanation of the evolution process until the 1930s, and now forms the basis of the modern evolutionary synthesis. As amended, the scientific discoveries of Darwin still the founding act of biology as a science, since they constitute a logical explanation that unifies observations about the diversity of life.

Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald (Saint Paul, Minnesota, September 24, 1896 - Hollywood, California, December 21, 1940) was an American novelist of the era of jazz. In his novels express the disappointment of the privileged youth of his generation who dragged her lassitude of jazz and gin (On this side of Paradise, 1920), in Europe on the French Riviera (Soft is the Night, 1934) or decorum of the fascinating cities (The Great Gatsby, 1925). He is considered one of the most important American writers of the twentieth century. He was spokesman for the "Lost Generation", those Americans born in the last decade of the nineteenth century they came to mature during the First World War. He wrote five novels and dozens of short stories covering such themes as "youth" or "despair" with extraordinary honesty to translate their emotions. His heroes, attractive, confident and convicted, shine brightly before explode ( "Show me a hero," Fitzgerald once said, "and you will write a tragedy), and their heroines are beautiful and complex

personality.

BIOGRAPHY

William Shakespeare (Great Britain, 1564-1616)
English poet and playwright, widely regarded as one of the best playwrights of the literature. He was baptized in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. The young Shakespeare had to start working as an apprentice butcher, by the difficult economic situation his father. Another witness, became a schoolteacher. The references in his works on hunting and falcons.
In 1582 he married Anne Hathaway, daughter of a farmer, with whom he had a daughter, Susanna, in 1583, and two twins, a boy, who died at 11 years old and a girl in 1585. Apparently, he had to leave Stratford andalusia surprising hunting illegally on the property of Sir Thomas Lucy, the magistrate of the city. The publication of two poems erotic as the fashion of the time, Venus and Adonis (1593) and the rape of Lucretia (1594) and its Sonetos earned him a reputation for brilliant Renaissance poet. The life of Shakespeare in London was marked by a series of financial arrangements that allowed him to share the benefits of the theater company in which it acted, the Chamberlain's Men, later called King's Men, and the two theaters possessed it, The Globe and Blackfriars.It was in 1599 when his company performed the works of the deposition and murder of King Richard II, at the request of a group of courtiers who conspired against Queen Elizabeth, led by a former favorite of the queen, Robert Devereux, and the Earl of Southampton, although the investigation that followed the event, the theater company was acquitted of any complicity. From the year 1608, Shakespeare's dramatic production decreased considerably, apparently was in his hometown, Stratford, where he bought a house called New Place. He died on April 23 1616 and was buried in the church of Stratford.



Until the eighteenth century, Shakespeare was considered only as a genius difficult. Nineteenth century onwards, his works have received the recognition they deserve in the world. Almost all his works continue today represent and are a source of inspiration for numerous theatrical experiments, reported as a deep understanding of human nature, as exemplified by the perfect characterization of their multifaceted characters. His skill in the use of poetic language and dramatic resources, able to create an aesthetic unity from a multitude of expressions and actions, has no par in the literature. Subsequent British playwrights as John Webster, John Ford and Philip Masing borrowed ideas from their works and their influence on the restoration of the authors, especially John Dryden, William Congreve and Thomas Otway is more than evident.